Introduction
Nagarjuna occupies a fascinating and complicated place in the history of Indian science. The name is associated with major traditions of Rasashastra, Indian alchemy, mineral processing and metallurgy. However, historical identification is important: there were multiple figures named Nagarjuna, and the famous Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna is not automatically the same person as the Nagarjuna associated with later alchemical literature.
In popular writing, Nagarjuna is often called the “father of Indian chemistry.” This phrase can communicate his importance, but it is a modern honorific rather than a precise historical category. Chemistry as a modern science developed much later. What can be studied historically is a long Indian tradition of working with minerals, metals, salts, mercury, furnaces, extraction, purification, calcination and medicinal preparations.
The tradition associated with Nagarjuna is especially important because it provides a window into laboratory-oriented practical knowledge. It involved substances that had to be heated, purified, combined, separated and transformed through repeated operations.
Who Was Nagarjuna?
The first fact to establish is that Nagarjuna is not a single unambiguous historical identity. The best-known Nagarjuna is the Buddhist philosopher traditionally dated to around the early centuries of the Common Era. A later figure or textual tradition under the same name became associated with Rasashastra and alchemical practice.
Because many Rasashastra texts have complicated transmission histories, scholars do not simply accept every traditional attribution as proof that a single historical individual wrote every work bearing Nagarjuna's name.
This distinction matters. It allows us to appreciate the chemical and metallurgical traditions connected with Nagarjuna without turning uncertain biographies into established facts.
Quick Facts
What Is Rasashastra?
Rasashastra is a traditional Indian discipline dealing with substances such as minerals, metals, salts and especially mercury, along with their purification, processing, combination and medicinal use.
The word rasa has a wide range of meanings in Sanskrit traditions. In Rasashastra, mercury became particularly important, and elaborate procedures were developed for handling and processing it. The tradition also includes substances derived from minerals and metals and techniques such as heating, grinding, washing, roasting and controlled preparation.
Some Rasashastra works connect chemical processing with Ayurvedic medicine. This created a distinctive tradition in which mineral and metallic preparations were treated as potential therapeutic substances.
Alchemy in the Indian Context
Alchemy was not unique to India. Ancient and medieval civilizations in China, the Islamic world, Europe and elsewhere developed traditions involving metals, minerals, medicines and transformative substances.
Indian alchemical traditions are often discussed under the broad framework of Rasashastra. Their goals could include medicinal preparations, preservation or strengthening of the body, and the transformation of substances. Transmutation of base metals into noble metals also appears in alchemical literature.
Modern chemistry emerged from a very different conceptual framework. Nevertheless, historical alchemy can contain genuine practical knowledge because repeated work with materials forces practitioners to observe changes in color, texture, weight, solubility, melting behavior and reaction to heat.
Mercury and Laboratory Processing
Mercury occupies a central place in many Rasashastra traditions. It is unusual because it is liquid at ordinary temperatures and can form compounds and amalgams with other metals.
Traditional texts describe numerous operations intended to purify or transform mercury and other substances. These can involve grinding, mixing, heating and repeated processing. From a history-of-technology perspective, such procedures are evidence of procedural laboratory knowledge.
However, mercury and many mineral substances can be toxic. Historical descriptions should not be interpreted as instructions for modern readers to reproduce these procedures. Contemporary chemistry and medicine require controlled facilities, analytical testing and established safety standards.
Metallurgy and the Indian Tradition
India has a long history of sophisticated metalworking. Archaeological and textual evidence shows knowledge of copper, iron, steel, gold, silver, zinc and other materials across different periods.
The history of Indian metallurgy is broader than Nagarjuna alone. Techniques developed by miners, smiths, metalworkers and specialized communities over centuries. Rasashastra belongs to this larger technological landscape.
It is therefore more accurate to say that traditions associated with Nagarjuna are part of a wider Indian history of materials processing rather than claiming that one person invented Indian metallurgy.
Zinc and Distillation: What Can We Actually Say?
India has particularly important evidence for the production of zinc by processes that involved condensation or distillation. The archaeological remains at Zawar in Rajasthan are frequently discussed in histories of zinc metallurgy.
Zinc is difficult to produce by simply heating its ore in an open vessel because zinc can vaporize at temperatures used in extraction. A closed or controlled process that allows zinc vapor to be condensed is therefore technologically significant.
It is tempting to attribute this entire achievement to Nagarjuna, but the evidence does not establish that he personally invented zinc distillation. The safest historical statement is that advanced Indian metallurgical traditions included zinc production, while Nagarjuna's name is strongly associated in later literature with alchemical and chemical practices.
Calcination and Transformation of Materials
Rasashastra texts contain procedures involving heating substances to produce altered materials. In modern chemical language, heating can cause decomposition, oxidation, reduction, phase changes and formation of new compounds.
Historical practitioners did not necessarily describe these transformations using modern atomic theory. Yet the repeated use of controlled heating demonstrates empirical attention to material change.
This is an important lesson in the history of chemistry: practical chemical knowledge can exist before the modern theoretical explanation of why a reaction occurs.
Minerals, Salts and Other Substances
Indian alchemical literature describes a large range of mineral and inorganic substances. Their identities can be difficult to map perfectly onto modern chemical names because historical terminology varied by region, period and text.
Some traditional categories were based on visible properties, origin, behavior under heat or practical use. Modern chemical analysis provides a much more precise system of elemental and molecular identification.
For historians, this makes textual interpretation especially important. A Sanskrit or regional name should not automatically be translated into a modern chemical formula without supporting evidence.
Nagarjuna and Rasaratnakara
Rasaratnakara is one of the works traditionally attributed to Nagarjuna in some accounts of Indian alchemy. It is associated with descriptions of substances and alchemical procedures.
But attribution and dating are not simple. Texts transmitted through manuscripts can be edited, expanded or recompiled over time. Therefore, saying “Nagarjuna personally wrote every surviving line of Rasaratnakara” would go beyond what the historical evidence securely establishes.
Alchemy and the Search for Transmutation
One of the famous goals of alchemy was transmutation—the transformation of one material into another, especially the conversion of base metals into gold. Indian alchemical traditions also contain ideas about transformation and elixirs.
From a modern scientific perspective, ordinary chemical reactions cannot change one element into another. Elemental transmutation requires nuclear processes, not conventional furnace chemistry.
There is no reliable evidence that Nagarjuna achieved large-scale literal conversion of common metals into gold. Such claims belong to the symbolic and alchemical imagination unless independently demonstrated.
Alchemy, Medicine and the Body
A distinctive feature of some Indian Rasashastra traditions is the connection between material transformation and medicine. Certain processed minerals and metals were incorporated into therapeutic systems.
Historically, this is important because it encouraged experimentation with preparation, dosage and processing. At the same time, modern toxicology shows that some heavy metals and mineral compounds can be dangerous. Historical use is not proof of modern safety or effectiveness.
Laboratory Equipment and Procedural Knowledge
Rasashastra literature describes specialized apparatus and vessels used for heating, distillation, sublimation, grinding and other operations. The exact design and terminology vary across texts and periods.
The existence of such apparatus indicates that chemical work was not merely philosophical speculation. Practitioners needed repeatable procedures and suitable containers to manipulate substances under controlled conditions.
This laboratory orientation is one reason historians consider Rasashastra relevant to the history of chemistry and technology.
Did Nagarjuna Invent Chemistry?
The statement that Nagarjuna “invented chemistry” is too broad. Chemical knowledge developed gradually across civilizations and across many generations.
A better formulation is that the traditions associated with Nagarjuna represent an important chapter in Indian chemical and alchemical practice. They preserve knowledge of materials, processing, apparatus and transformations that belong to the long prehistory and history of chemistry.
Nagarjuna vs the Buddhist Philosopher
The name Nagarjuna creates a major historical problem. The celebrated Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna is associated with Madhyamaka philosophy and is usually placed many centuries earlier than the medieval Rasashastra literature.
Some traditional accounts connect the philosopher with alchemy, while others treat the alchemical Nagarjuna as a separate person. Modern historians therefore distinguish the identities rather than assuming that every story refers to one individual.
This distinction is especially important for SEO articles because many internet pages combine biographies, legends and chemical claims without separating their sources.
Indian Chemistry Before and After Nagarjuna
Indian chemical and metallurgical knowledge did not begin with Nagarjuna and did not end with him. Earlier traditions included dyeing, pottery, glass-like materials, metallurgy, fermentation and mineral processing. Later traditions expanded work in medicine, metallurgy and Rasashastra.
Seen in this long timeline, Nagarjuna is better understood as a symbolic and textual figure associated with a mature tradition of material experimentation rather than as the single inventor of all chemical knowledge in India.
Historical Evidence vs Popular Claims
| Popular claim | Historical assessment |
|---|---|
| Nagarjuna was definitely the single inventor of Indian chemistry. | Too broad. Indian chemical knowledge developed over many centuries and communities. |
| Nagarjuna definitely discovered zinc distillation. | Indian zinc metallurgy is well documented, but direct attribution to Nagarjuna is not securely established. |
| He converted base metals into gold. | No reliable evidence establishes literal large-scale transmutation. |
| Rasashastra is exactly the same as modern chemistry. | Incorrect. It is a historical alchemical and medicinal tradition with practical chemical knowledge. |
| Every text attributed to Nagarjuna was certainly written by one person. | Textual attribution and dating are complicated and require scholarly caution. |
| All accounts of Nagarjuna refer to the Buddhist philosopher. | Incorrect. Multiple historical and traditional figures may be involved. |
Why Nagarjuna Matters in the History of Chemistry
Nagarjuna matters because the traditions connected with his name help illustrate how premodern practitioners worked with matter. They dealt with minerals, metals, mercury and salts; developed specialized apparatus; repeated purification and heating procedures; and connected material processing with medicine and alchemical goals.
These activities belong to the long global history of chemistry. They should be studied in their own historical context rather than judged solely by whether they match modern chemical theory.
A Balanced Historical Assessment
The strongest account of Nagarjuna is neither exaggerated nor dismissive. It is inaccurate to claim that he personally invented modern chemistry, discovered the periodic table or achieved nuclear-style transmutation. It is equally misleading to ignore the practical sophistication of Indian alchemical and metallurgical traditions.
A balanced view recognizes three things: the historical importance of Rasashastra, the genuine practical knowledge of materials preserved in the tradition, and the uncertainty surrounding the identity and authorship of individual Nagarjuna-related texts.
Conclusion
Nagarjuna is one of the most important names associated with the history of Indian Rasashastra and alchemy. His traditional legacy connects minerals, metals, mercury, laboratory processing, metallurgy and medicinal preparations.
The phrase “father of Indian chemistry” is best treated as a modern honorific, not as a literal historical fact. The deeper story is more interesting: Indian practitioners developed generations of practical knowledge about materials, and texts associated with Nagarjuna preserve part of that tradition.
Studying Nagarjuna therefore adds an important chapter to the global history of chemistry—one in which laboratory practice, medicine, metallurgy and alchemy intersected long before the emergence of modern chemical theory.
परिचय
आचार्य नागार्जुन का नाम भारतीय रसशास्त्र, रसायन परंपरा, धातु-प्रसंस्करण और खनिज ज्ञान के इतिहास से गहराई से जुड़ा हुआ है। लेकिन यहाँ एक महत्वपूर्ण historical caution जरूरी है: “नागार्जुन” नाम कई अलग-अलग ऐतिहासिक व्यक्तियों के लिए मिलता है। प्रसिद्ध Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna को Rasashastra से जुड़े Nagarjuna के साथ automatically identical नहीं माना जाना चाहिए।
Popular articles में उन्हें “Father of Indian Chemistry” कहा जाता है। यह एक modern honorific है, precise historical classification नहीं। Modern chemistry बहुत बाद में विकसित हुई। फिर भी Indian traditions में minerals, metals, mercury, salts, furnaces, purification, heating और medicinal preparations से संबंधित practical knowledge का लंबा इतिहास है।
नागार्जुन कौन थे?
Nagarjuna की identity सबसे बड़ा historical issue है। प्रसिद्ध Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna को generally early centuries CE से जोड़ा जाता है, जबकि later Rasashastra tradition में एक Nagarjuna chemical और alchemical practices से associated हैं।
Rasashastra texts की transmission complex रही है, इसलिए हर text की traditional attribution को direct authorship का absolute proof नहीं माना जा सकता।
त्वरित तथ्य
रसशास्त्र क्या है?
रसशास्त्र भारतीय पारंपरिक discipline है जिसमें minerals, metals, salts और विशेष रूप से mercury जैसे substances की purification, processing, combination और medicinal use की चर्चा होती है।
Mercury को बहुत important माना गया और इसके processing के लिए grinding, mixing, heating तथा repeated procedures जैसी techniques वर्णित हैं। कुछ traditions में mineral और metallic preparations को Ayurveda से भी जोड़ा गया।
भारतीय संदर्भ में Alchemy
Alchemy केवल India तक सीमित नहीं थी। China, Islamic world और Europe में भी metals, minerals, medicines और transformation से जुड़ी traditions विकसित हुईं। Indian alchemical traditions को broadly Rasashastra के context में समझा जाता है।
इन traditions में medicinal preparations और body preservation जैसे goals के साथ metals को transform करने की ideas भी थीं। Modern chemistry अलग theoretical framework पर आधारित है, लेकिन historical alchemy में material changes की genuine practical observation हो सकती थी।
पारा और Laboratory Processing
Mercury Rasashastra में central substance था। यह room temperature पर liquid होता है और कई metals के साथ amalgams तथा compounds बना सकता है। Traditional texts में mercury और अन्य substances को process करने की अनेक विधियाँ मिलती हैं।
लेकिन mercury toxic हो सकता है। Historical procedures को modern readers के लिए practical DIY instructions की तरह follow नहीं करना चाहिए। Contemporary chemistry में controlled laboratories और safety standards जरूरी हैं।
Metallurgy और Indian Tradition
India में copper, iron, steel, gold, silver और zinc जैसी metals के साथ long metallurgical history रही है। यह knowledge केवल Nagarjuna से शुरू नहीं हुई थी। Miners, smiths और specialized communities ने centuries तक material processing विकसित की।
इसलिए Nagarjuna-related Rasashastra को broader Indian metallurgy के एक important chapter के रूप में देखना बेहतर है।
Zinc और Distillation
Rajasthan के Zawar archaeological remains Indian zinc production के महत्वपूर्ण evidence हैं। Zinc extraction में vaporization और condensation जैसी technological problems को handle करना पड़ता है।
लेकिन यह कहना कि Nagarjuna ने personally zinc distillation invent की थी, securely established नहीं है। Stronger historical claim यह है कि India में advanced zinc metallurgy मौजूद थी और Nagarjuna का नाम later alchemical traditions से strongly associated है।
Calcination और Material Transformation
Rasashastra texts में heating के जरिए substances को बदलने की processes मिलती हैं। Modern chemistry की language में heating से decomposition, oxidation, reduction या नए compounds बन सकते हैं।
Ancient practitioners के पास modern atomic theory नहीं थी, लेकिन repeated heating और processing material change की empirical understanding को दिखाते हैं।
Minerals और Salts
Indian alchemical literature में minerals और inorganic substances की बड़ी range मिलती है। Historical terminology को modern chemical formula से automatically equate करना safe नहीं है क्योंकि names और classifications period और region के अनुसार बदलते थे।
Rasaratnakara
Rasaratnakara को कुछ traditions Nagarjuna से attribute करती हैं। इसमें substances और alchemical procedures से related material मिलता है। लेकिन authorship और dating complex questions हैं। Manuscripts time के साथ edit या recompile हो सकते हैं।
धातु से सोना बनाने का दावा
Alchemy में transmutation यानी base metals को noble metals में बदलने की goal दिखाई देती है। Indian alchemical traditions में भी transformation और elixir-related ideas मिलती हैं।
Modern science के अनुसार ordinary chemical reactions एक element को दूसरे element में convert नहीं करतीं। Literal large-scale gold-making by Nagarjuna का reliable evidence उपलब्ध नहीं है।
Alchemy और Medicine
कुछ Indian Rasashastra traditions में material processing और medicine closely connected थे। Mineral और metallic preparations को therapeutic systems में include किया गया।
लेकिन historical use modern safety या effectiveness का proof नहीं है। Heavy metals और कई minerals toxic हो सकते हैं, इसलिए modern medical standards अलग हैं।
Laboratory Equipment
Rasashastra literature में heating, distillation, grinding और अन्य operations के लिए specialized apparatus और vessels का वर्णन मिलता है। यह बताता है कि chemical work सिर्फ philosophical speculation नहीं था; practical procedures और equipment की जरूरत थी।
क्या नागार्जुन ने Chemistry Invent की?
“Nagarjuna invented chemistry” कहना बहुत broad claim है। Chemical knowledge अनेक civilizations और generations में gradually develop हुई। Better statement यह है कि Nagarjuna से जुड़ी traditions Indian chemical और alchemical practice के important chapter को preserve करती हैं।
Buddhist Philosopher Nagarjuna से अंतर
Famous Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna और Rasashastra-associated Nagarjuna को automatically same person मानना उचित नहीं है। उनके chronologies और textual contexts अलग हो सकते हैं।
यह distinction खासकर online biographies में important है, क्योंकि कई pages legends और chemical claims को बिना separation के combine कर देते हैं।
Historical Evidence और Popular Claims
“Nagarjuna single inventor of Indian chemistry थे”: बहुत broad claim।
“उन्होंने zinc distillation discover की”: Indian zinc metallurgy का evidence strong है, लेकिन direct personal attribution secure नहीं है।
“उन्होंने base metals को gold बनाया”: Reliable evidence नहीं है।
“Rasashastra exactly modern chemistry है”: गलत; यह historical alchemical और medicinal tradition है।
“हर Nagarjuna-related text एक ही व्यक्ति ने लिखा”: Textual attribution complex है।
आज नागार्जुन क्यों महत्वपूर्ण हैं?
Nagarjuna-related traditions हमें यह समझने में मदद करती हैं कि premodern practitioners matter के साथ कैसे काम करते थे—minerals, metals, mercury और salts को process करना, heating और purification करना और medicinal/alchemical goals के लिए materials तैयार करना।
निष्कर्ष
नागार्जुन Indian Rasashastra और alchemy के history में एक important name हैं। “Father of Indian Chemistry” एक modern honorific है, literal historical fact नहीं।
उनकी वास्तविक historical importance practical material knowledge की उस long Indian tradition में है जिसमें metallurgy, medicine, minerals और laboratory processing एक-दूसरे से जुड़े हुए थे।
Introduction
Nagarjuna ka naam Indian Rasashastra, alchemy, metallurgy aur traditional chemical knowledge ke history se strongly connected hai. Lekin ek important historical point hai: Nagarjuna ek single unambiguous identity nahi hai. Famous Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna aur later Rasashastra-associated Nagarjuna ko automatically same person nahi maana ja sakta.
Online articles mein Nagarjuna ko “Father of Indian Chemistry” bola jata hai. Ye ek modern honorific hai, exact historical category nahi. Modern chemistry later develop hui, lekin India mein minerals, metals, mercury, salts, heating, purification aur medicinal preparations par practical traditions centuries tak develop hoti rahi.
Rasashastra kya hai?
Rasashastra ek traditional Indian discipline hai jo minerals, metals, salts aur especially mercury ke processing, purification aur medicinal use se related hai.
Traditional procedures mein grinding, mixing, heating aur repeated processing milti hai. Kuch traditions mein mineral aur metallic preparations ko Ayurveda ke saath connect kiya gaya.
Nagarjuna aur Indian Alchemy
Indian alchemy ko broadly Rasashastra ke framework mein samjha ja sakta hai. Is tradition mein medicinal preparations ke saath material transformation aur elixir-related ideas bhi milte hain.
Alchemy ko modern chemistry ke equal nahi rakhna chahiye. Lekin repeated work with materials se color, texture, weight, solubility aur heat response jaise changes ki practical observations develop ho sakti thi.
Mercury aur Laboratory Work
Mercury Rasashastra ka important substance tha. Traditional literature mein mercury aur other substances ko process karne ki many procedures milti hain. Ye history of laboratory practice ke liye interesting evidence hai.
However, mercury aur many mineral substances toxic ho sakte hain. Historical procedures ko ghar par reproduce karna safe nahi hai; modern chemical work controlled laboratory aur safety standards ke under hota hai.
Metallurgy
India ki metallurgy Nagarjuna se bahut pehle se develop ho rahi thi. Copper, iron, steel, gold, silver aur zinc ke saath long technological traditions rahi hain. Miners aur metalworkers ka contribution bhi important tha.
Zinc Distillation
Rajasthan ka Zawar site Indian zinc metallurgy ka important archaeological evidence deta hai. Zinc extraction mein vaporization aur condensation ko control karna technologically difficult hota hai.
Lekin “Nagarjuna personally invented zinc distillation” claim securely proven nahi hai. Better statement ye hai ki India mein advanced zinc metallurgy thi aur Nagarjuna later alchemical traditions se strongly associated hain.
Alchemy aur Gold Transmutation
Alchemy mein base metals ko gold mein transform karne ki aspiration common thi. Indian alchemical traditions mein bhi transmutation aur elixir ideas milte hain.
Modern chemistry ke according ordinary chemical reactions elements ko ek dusre mein convert nahi karti. Nagarjuna ke large-scale gold-making ka reliable evidence nahi hai.
Rasaratnakara
Rasaratnakara ko kuch traditions Nagarjuna se attribute karti hain. Lekin manuscripts ki transmission complex hoti hai, isliye authorship aur dating ko simple fact ki tarah present nahi karna chahiye.
Nagarjuna vs Buddhist Philosopher
Famous Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna aur alchemical Nagarjuna ki identities ko separate rakhna historically safer hai. Popular legends kabhi-kabhi dono traditions ko combine kar dete hain.
Did Nagarjuna Invent Chemistry?
Nahi, “invented chemistry” bahut broad claim hai. Chemistry ka development many civilizations aur generations mein hua. Nagarjuna-related Rasashastra traditions Indian chemical practice ke ek important historical chapter ko represent karti hain.
Modern Science se Difference
Rasashastra mein genuine practical material knowledge ho sakta hai, but it is not identical to modern chemistry. Modern chemistry atomic theory, quantitative measurement, controlled experiments aur later scientific frameworks par based hai.
Myths vs Facts
“Nagarjuna invented all Indian chemistry”: Too broad.
“He discovered zinc distillation”: Direct attribution secure nahi.
“He made gold from base metals”: Reliable evidence nahi.
“Rasashastra is modern chemistry”: Incorrect; it is a historical alchemical/medicinal tradition.
Conclusion
Nagarjuna Indian Rasashastra aur alchemy ke history mein important name hain. Unse associated traditions minerals, metals, mercury, processing, laboratory apparatus aur medicinal preparations ki practical knowledge preserve karti hain.
Unki importance ko best way mein samajhne ke liye modern discoveries ko unke naam se attach karne ke bajay actual historical tradition, textual uncertainty aur material practices ko study karna chahiye.
Frequently Asked Questions
Who was Nagarjuna?
Nagarjuna is a name associated with multiple historical figures. In the history of Rasashastra, a Nagarjuna is traditionally connected with Indian alchemy and chemical practices.
Was Nagarjuna the father of Indian chemistry?
“Father of Indian chemistry” is a modern honorific. Indian chemical knowledge developed over many centuries and cannot be attributed to one individual.
What is Rasashastra?
Rasashastra is a traditional Indian discipline involving minerals, metals, mercury, purification, processing and medicinal preparations.
Was Nagarjuna an alchemist?
A Nagarjuna is traditionally associated with Indian alchemical literature, although text attribution and chronology require caution.
Did Nagarjuna discover zinc distillation?
Indian zinc production and distillation are archaeologically important, but direct invention by Nagarjuna is not securely established.
Did Nagarjuna make gold?
Alchemy contains transmutation goals, but reliable evidence does not establish that Nagarjuna achieved literal large-scale conversion of base metals into gold.
What is Rasaratnakara?
Rasaratnakara is traditionally attributed to Nagarjuna in some accounts, but its authorship and dating are debated.
Is Rasashastra the same as modern chemistry?
No. It is a historical alchemical and medicinal tradition with practical chemical knowledge, while modern chemistry developed later with different theories and methods.
Why is Nagarjuna important in chemistry history?
Traditions associated with his name preserve evidence of practical work with minerals, metals, mercury, laboratory processing and medicinal preparations.
Is the Buddhist Nagarjuna the same person?
Not necessarily. Historical scholarship distinguishes the famous Buddhist philosopher from later Nagarjuna traditions associated with Rasashastra unless evidence establishes a connection.
Research Note
This article separates traditional attribution from secure historical evidence. It uses terms such as chemistry and alchemy for accessibility while recognizing that Rasashastra is a historical Indian knowledge tradition rather than a direct equivalent of modern chemistry.